A short animation of an atmospheric simulation of methane emissions from a coal mine (produced using TAPM) compared to actual methane concentrations detected by the Atmospheric Monitoring Station, Arcturus in Central Queensland. It illustrates the effectiveness of both the detection and simulation techniques in the monitoring of atmospheric methane emissions. The animation shows a moving trace of both the simulated and actual recorded emissions data, along with windspeed and direction indicators. Some data provided by CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research.

Deployment of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle during surface CO2 release experiments at the Ginninderra greenhouse gas controlled release facility H. Berko (CO2CRC, Geoscience Australia), F. Poppa (The Australian National University), U. Zimmer (The Australian National University) and A. Feitz (CO2CRC, Geoscience Australia) Lagrangian stochastic (LS) forward modelling of CO2 plumes from above-surface release experiments conducted at the GA-CO2CRC Ginninderra controlled release facility demonstrated that small surface leaks are likely to disperse rapidly and unlikely to be detected at heights greater 4 m; this was verified using a rotorcraft to map out the plume. The CO2 sensing rotorcraft unmanned aerial vehicle (RUAV) developed at the Australian National University, Canberra, is equipped with a CO2 sensor, a GPS, lidar and a communication module. It was developed to detect and locate CO2 gas leaks; and estimate CO2 concentration at the emission source. The choice of a rotor-craft UAV allows slower flight speeds compared to speeds of a fixed-wing UAV; and the electric powered motor enables flight times of 12 min. In experiments conducted at the Ginninderra controlled release facility, gaseous CO2 (100 kg per day) was released from a small diffuse source located in the middle of the paddock, and the RUAV was flown repeatedly over the CO2 source at a few meters height. Meteorological parameters measured continuously at the site at the time of the flight were input in the LS model. Mapped out horizontal and vertical CO2 concentrations established the need to be close to the ground in order to detect CO2 leakage using aerial techniques. Using the rotorcraft as a mobile sensor could be an expedient mechanism to detect plumes over large areas, and would be important for early detection of CO2 leaks arising from CCS activities.

Hydrothermal and hot fractured rock (HFR) resources are prevalent in Australia. This, and evidence of risks posed by climate change are factors stimulating growth in geothermal energy exploration, proof-of-concept and demonstration power generation projects in Australia. In the six years since the grant of the first Geothermal Exploration Licence (GEL) in Australia in 2001, 16 companies have joined the hunt for renewable and emissions-free geothermal energy resources in 122 licence application areas covering ~ 68,000 km2. The associated work programs correspond to an investment of $570 million, a tally which excludes up-scaling and deployment projects assumed in the Energy Supply Association of Australia's scenario for 6.8% (~ 5.5 GWe) of Australia's base-load power coming from geothermal resources by 2030. Most investment is focused on HFR for enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) to fuel binary power plants. At least two companies are also focused on hydrothermal resources, also to fuel binary power plants. A national EGS resource assessment and a road-map for the commercialisation of Australian EGS are expected to be published in 2008. Geoscience Australia's preliminary work suggests Australia's hot rock energy between 150oC and 5 km is roughly 1.2 billion PJ (roughly 20,000 years of Australia's primary energy use in 2005), without taking account of the renewable characteristics of hot rock EGS plays. The presentation will provide up-to-date accounts of: 1. Exploration, proof-of-concept and demonstration projects on the path to commercializing hot rock resources in Australia; 2. Government designed investment frameworks that aim to attract and facilitate progress to commercializing hot rock resources in Australia; 3. Methods adopted by regulators to meet community expectations that only safe operations (including EGS projects) will be approved by regulators; and 4. Proposed methods for the portfolio management of EGS projects vying for funding within companies, and competing for research and demonstration grants from governments.

A shallow vertical CO2 injection test was conducted over a 21 day period at the Ginninderra Controlled Release Facility in May 2011. The objective of this test was to determine the extent of lateral CO2 dispersion, breakthrough times and permeability of the soil present at the Ginninderra site. The facility is located in Canberra on the CSIRO agricultural Ginninderra Experiment Station. A 2.15m deep, 15cm stainless steel screened, soil gas sampling well was installed at the site and this was used as the CO2 injection well. The CO2 flow rate was 1.6 L/min (STP). CO2 soil effluxes (respiration and seepage) were measured continuously using a LICOR LI-8100A Automated Soil CO2 Flux System equipped with 5 accumulation chambers spaced 1m apart in a radial pattern from the injection well. These measurements were supplemented with CO2 flux spot measurements using a WestSystems portable fluxmeter. Breakthrough at 1m from the injection point occurred within 6 hrs of injection, 32hrs at 2m and after almost 5 days at 3m. The average steady state CO2 efflux was 85 ?mol/m2/s at 1m, 15 ?mol/m2/s at 2m and 5.0 ?mol/m2/s at 3m. The average background CO2 soil respiration efflux was 1.1 - 0.6 ?mol/m2/s. Under windy conditions, higher soil CO2 efflux could be expected due to pressure pumping but this is contrary to the observed results. Prolonged windy periods led to a reduction in the CO2 efflux, up to 30% lower than the typical steady state value.

Eddy Covariance (EC) is considered a key atmospheric technique for quantifying CO2 leakage. However the complex and localised heterogeneity of a CO2 leak above the background environmental signal violates several of the critical assumptions made when implementing the EC technique, including: - That horizontal gradients in CO2 concentration are zero. - That horizontal and vertical gradients in the covariance of CO2 and orthogonal wind directions are zero. The ability of EC measurements of CO2 flux at the surface to provide information on the location and strength of CO2 leakage from below ground stores was tested during a 144 kg/day release event (27 March - 13 June 2012) at the Ginninderra controlled release facility. We show that the direction of the leak can be ascertained with some confidence although this depends on leak strength and distance from leak. Elevated CO2 levels are seen in the direction of the leakage area, however quantifying the emissions is confounded by the potential bias within each measurement through breaching of the assumptions underpinning the EC technique. The CO2 flux due to advection of the horizontal CO2 concentration gradients, thought to be the largest component of the error with the violation of the EC technique's assumptions, has been estimated using the modelling software Windtrax. The magnitude of the CO2 flux due to advection is then compared with the measured CO2 flux measured using the EC technique, to provide an initial assessment of the suitability of the EC technique to quantifying leakage source rates. Presented at the 2013 CO2CRC Research Symposium

Hot Rocks in Australia - National Outlook Hill, A.J.1, Goldstein, B.A1 and Budd, A.R.2 goldstein.barry@saugov.sa.gov.au hill.tonyj@saugov.sa.gov.au Petroleum & Geothermal Group, PIRSA Level 6, 101 Grenfell St.Adelaide SA 50001 Anthony.Budd@ga.gov.au Onshore Energy & Minerals Division, Geoscience Australia, GPO Box 378 Canberra ACT 26012 Abstract: Evidence of climate change and knowledge of enormous hot rock resources are factors stimulating growth in geothermal energy research, including exploration, proof-of-concept appraisals, and development of demonstration pilot plant projects in Australia. In the six years since the grant of the first Geothermal Exploration Licence (GEL) in Australia, 16 companies have joined the hunt for renewable and emissions-free geothermal energy resources in 120 licence application areas covering ~ 67,000 km2 in Australia. The associated work programs correspond to an investment of $570 million, and that tally excludes deployment projects assumed in the Energy Supply Association of Australia's scenario for 6.8% (~ 5.5 GWe) of Australia's base-load power coming from geothermal resources by 2030. Australia's geothermal resources fall into two categories: hydrothermal (from relatively hot groundwater) and the hot fractured rock i.e. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS). Large-scale base-load electricity generation in Australia is expected to come predominantly from Enhanced Geothermal systems. Geologic factors that determine the extent of EGS plays can be generalised as: - source rock availability, in the form of radiogenic, high heat-flow basement rocks (mostly granites); - low thermal-conductivity insulating rocks overlying the source rocks, to provide thermal traps; - the presence of permeable fabrics within insulating and basement rocks, that can be enhanced to create heat-exchange reservoirs; and - a practical depth-range, limited by drilling and completion technologies (defining a base) and necessary heat exchange efficiency (defining a top). A national EGS resource assessment and a road-map for the commercialisation of Australia's EGSs are expected to be published in 2008. The poster will provide a synopsis of investment frameworks and geothermal energy projects underway and planned in Australia.

The first large-scale projects for geological storage of carbon dioxide on the Australian mainland are likely to occur within sedimentary sequences that underlie or are within the Triassic-Cretaceous, Great Artesian Basin (GAB) aquifer sequence. Recent national1 and state2 assessments have concluded that certain deep formations within the GAB show considerable geological suitability for the storage of greenhouse gases. These same formations contain trapped methane and naturally generated CO2 stored for millions of years. In July 2010, the Queensland government released exploration permits for Greenhouse Gas Storage in the Surat and Galilee basins.An important consideration in assessing the potential economic, environmental, health and safety risks of such projects is the potential impact CO2 migrating out of storage reservoirs could have on overlying groundwater resources. The risk and impact of CO2 migrating from a greenhouse gas storage reservoir into groundwater cannot be objectively assessed without knowledge of the natural baseline characteristics of the groundwater within these systems. Due to the phase behaviour of CO2, geological storage of carbon dioxide in the supercritical state requires depths greater than 800m, but there are few hydrogeochemical studies of these deeper aquifers in the prospective storage areas. Historical hydrogeochemical data are compiled from various State and Federal Government agencies. In addition, hydrogeochemical information is compiled from thousands of petroleum well completion reports in order to obtain more information on the deeper aquifers, not typically used for agriculture or human consumption. The data are passed through a QC procedure to check for mud contamination and to ascertain whether a representative sample had been collected. The large majority of the samples proved to be contaminated but a small selection passed the QC criteria. The full dataset is available for download from GA's Virtual Dataroom. Oral presentation at "Groundwater 2010" Conference, 31 October - 4 November 2010, Canberra

Australia has embarked on a process of potential commitment through the Kyoto Protocol to contain growth in greenhouse gas emissions to 8% between 1990 and the reporting period of 2008 - 2012. The target is well below the estimated growth of about 28% under the `business as usual' condition. Australia's greenhouse gas inventory estimates that 502 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents were emitted in the base year of 1990. This report examines over 175 candidate options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to identify their technical feasibility, cost per tonne of carbon dioxide avoided and capability to reduce emissions under Australian conditions. The candidate options were not intended to represent an exhaustive list but they encompass major and some lesser options being canvassed in Australia and overseas. Preferred options were selected on their performance towards the criteria of technical feasibility, cost and capability.

Geological storage of greenhouse gases is one approach that the Australian Government is pursuing to assist Australia, and the world, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Understanding the geology of Australia's sedimentary basins and their potential for greenhouse gas storage is an important component of Geoscience Australia's work in supporting emission reductions.

Quantification of leakage into the atmosphere from geologically stored CO2 is achievable by means of atmospheric monitoring techniques if the position of the leak can be located and the perturbation above the background concentration is sufficiently large for discrimination. Geoscience Australia and the CO2CRC have recently constructed a site in northern Canberra for the controlled release of greenhouse gases. This facility enables the simulation of leak events and provides an opportunity to investigate techniques for the detection and quantification of emissions of CO2 (and other greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere under controlled conditions. The facility is modelled on the ZERT controlled release facility in Montana. The first phase of the installation is complete and has supported an above ground, point source, release experiment (e.g. simulating leakage from a compromised well). Phase 2 involves the installation of a shallow underground horizontal well for line source CO2 release experiments and this will be installed during the first half of 2011. A release experiment was conducted at the site to explore the application of a technique, termed atmospheric tomography, to simultaneously determine the location and emission rate of a leak when both are unknown. The technique was applied to the release of two gas species, N2O and CO2, with continuous sampling of atmospheric trace gas concentrations from 8 locations 20m distant from a central release point and measurement of atmospheric turbulence and dispersive conditions. The release rate was 1.10 ± 0.02 g min-1 for N2O and 58.5 ± 0.4 g min-1 for CO2 (equivalent to 30.7 ± 0.2 tonnes CO2 yr-1). Localisation using both release species occurred within 0.5 m (2% error) of the known location. Determination of emission rate was possible to within 7% for CO2 and 5% for N2O.